Linguistics 8

Part of Speech


Part of Speech Overview
In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have distinctive meanings. Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several types or parts of speech. This article will offer definitions and examples for the 8 major parts of speech in English grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and interjection.

1. Noun
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas, or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of speech, which is why they are the first ones taught to students in primary school.
Examples:

Tom Hanks is very versatile.
The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.

Dogs can be extremely cute.
In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it names an animal.

It is my birthday.
The word “birthday” is a noun which refers to an event.

There are different types of nouns namely:

Proper- proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to specific names of persons, places, or things.
Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones

Common- common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons, things, or places.
Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series

Concrete- this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
Examples: folder, sand, board

Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive through your five senses.
Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery

Count- it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
Examples: kitten, video, ball

Mass- this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them.
Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter

Collective- refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)

This great list of nouns can help you explore more nouns.
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Some examples of pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentences:

Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to stop.
The largest slice is mine.
We are number one.

The italicized words in the sentences above are the pronouns in the sentence.
3. Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can specify the quality, the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.
Use this link to get a list of adjectives.
Sample Sentences:

The carvings are intricate.
The italicized word describes the appearance of the noun “carvings.”

I have two hamsters.
The italicized word “two,” is an adjective which describes the number of the noun “hamsters.”

Wow! That doughnut is huge!
The italicized word is an adjective which describes the size of the noun “doughnut.”

4. Verb
This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would not exist. Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or state of being of the subject in a sentence.
Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were
Sample Sentences:

As usual, the Stormtroopers missed their shot.
The italicized word expresses the action of the subject “Stormtroopers.”

They are always prepared in emergencies.
The verb “are” refers to the state of being of the pronoun “they,” which is the subject in the sentence.

5. Adverb
Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.
The different types of adverbs are:

Adverb of Manner- this refers to how something happens or how an action is done.
Example: Annie danced gracefully.
The word “gracefully” tells how Annie danced.

Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
Example: She came yesterday.
The italicized word tells when she “came.”

Adverb of Place- this tells something about “where” something happens or ”where” something is done.
Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!
The adverb “everywhere” tells where I “looked.”

Adverb of Degree- this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing happens or is done.
Example: The child is very talented.
The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”

6. Preposition
This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.
Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since
Sample Sentences:

Micah is hiding under the bed.
The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “under the bed,” and tells where Micah is hiding.

During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.
The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “during the game,” and tells when the audience cheered.

7. Conjunction
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Sample Sentences:

This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.
Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s instructions.
Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to audition.

The italicized words in the sentences above are some examples of conjunctions.
8. Interjection
This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are commonly used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation point.
Examples of Interjections:

Sample Sentences:

Ouch! That must have hurt.
Hurray, we won!
Hey! I said enough!

The bold words attached to the main sentences above are some examples of interjections.
Final Thoughts
You must familiarize yourself with the different parts of speech discussed in this article because they are among the most fundamental concepts that you will encounter throughout your study of grammar. An in-depth knowledge of this topic will not only make you a better writer, but an effective communicator as well

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Linguistics 7

The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND
A. Introduction
GTM is not a new thing in language learning, which is only slightly different. The name that has been used by language teachers for a few years ago. In ancient times this method is called the "classical method" of the time used in the classical language learning, such as Latin and Greek. At the beginning of this century, this method is used to assist students in reading and understanding a foreign language literature. But it is also expected that it is in studying or understanding the grammar of the desired target language, students will become more familiar with the language rules in accordance with the source language and a deeper understanding of this will further help them in reading and writing according to the source language to be better.
Finally concluded that it is studying a foreign language will help the development of students in developing intellectual, it can be recognized that the students will never use the target language, but learning is very much needed mental
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. Definition
The grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek
B. Caracteristic
The grammar translation method has eihgt caracteristic
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
C. Techniques
The grammar translation method has nine Techniques :
1. Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
2. Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)
3. Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words).
4. Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
5. Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)
6. Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type).
7. Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms)
8. Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)
9. Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language).
D. Advantages
a. The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some short of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the target language.
b. Teacher’s labour is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learnt what he has taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learners does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long
E. Disadvantages
a. It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings. But in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
b. Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of communicating through English. It has been observed that in a class, which is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire habit of speaking English. Thus, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught through this method.
c. Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’ and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language.
d. It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learnt through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have learnt a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and than translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
The Grammar Translation Method was developed for the study of “dead” languages and to facilitate access to those languages’ classical literature. That’s the way it should stay. English is certainly not a dead or dying language, so any teacher that takes “an approach for dead language study” into an English language classroom should perhaps think about taking up Math or Science instead. Rules, universals and memorized principles apply to those disciplines – pedagogy and communicative principles do not.

REFERENCES
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (1986) Techniques and Principles of Language Teaching, OxfordUniversity Press.
Billah,MD.M. “Teaching English through English Medium”. The New Nation.Online. 20 Nov 2005.
2. Brown, D.H. Teaching by Principles:An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Longman: New York,2001.
3. Dr. Shahidullah, M., Islam. J., Majid , I. A. N. and Haque,M.S. English For Today for Classes 11-12.Dhaka.NCTB, 2001.
4. Dr. Shahidullah,M.,Islam,J., Majid, I. A.N. and Haque,M.S. Teacher’s Guide for English For Today For Casses 11-12.Dhaka.ELTIP, 2001.
5. Larsen-Freeman,D. Techniques and Principles of Language Teaching. Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press, 1981.
6. Shahzadi,N.,Rabbani,F.,Tasmin,S. English For today for Classes 9-10.Dhaka.NCTB, 2002.

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Linguistics 6

Young Learners And The Phonemic Chart

CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND
A. Intoduction
The main aim of this paper is for teachers to help their students become more knowledgeable and interested in learning the sounds of English and to help them see how it can facilitate autonomous learning with self-study English language learning material and dictionaries. Hopefully if we start educating learners from a young age they will be more comfortable with phonemic script and see the benefits of it when they are older and more self-aware learners.
· Why use the chart?
· Background to the activities
· The phoneme race
· Make your own wall charts
· Chinese whispers
· Using dictionaries
· Going shopping
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. Why use the chart?
First of all let's take a look at why we should use the phonemic chart at all in class. I've spoken to many teachers who say they shy away from using the chart. Perhaps they are unfamiliar with the sounds and symbols, or they see it as too difficult for their students to learn. Or they might have come up against student resistance to using the symbols in class doing pronunciation work. Hopefully this article will help us to see how it can be incredibly beneficial for teachers and students to become more familiar with the sounds and give them some ideas of how they can become more confident (teachers and students) about using the phonemic chart.
Here are some of the reasons I can see for using the phonemic chart in pronunciation work:
· It provides a standard from which to teach and learn pronunciation.
· It enables the students to better use their dictionaries.
· It gives the teacher a fast and effective tool for teaching pronunciation and for correcting errors.
· Once accustomed to it the students can use it in their notes to help learn the correct pronunciation of new vocabulary. Often without proper drilling etc, it can be difficult for students to remember the correct pronunciation as the spelling of English can be confusing.
· If, as a teacher, you feel you are still learning about pronunciation or want to learn about the phonemic chart then doing activities is one of the best ways of doing this.
· As Jennifer Jenkins suggests in her article, teachers can be selective about the sounds they help their learners to focus on. Learners should be made aware of the importance of pronunciation and of which sounds help them to become more comprehensible in the English speaking world.
B. Background to the activities
Although the following activities are aimed mainly at young learners many would be ideal for adult groups. Adults also enjoy kinaesthetic activities, and many of the ones described in this article are just that!
The ideas are for the most part discrete item approach activities, isolating sounds. I have also included an activity which shows how we can incorporate pronunciation work into more communicative activities.
Now for the fun part. Here are 5 ideas for teaching pronunciation using the phonetic alphabet.
The phoneme race
This is useful for introducing students to new phonemes and revising recently learnt sounds.
· Put six or so symbols on the board.
· Write words on cards big enough to be seen when stuck on the board. Five for each sound is enough.
· Drill the sounds. Be imaginative with your voice if doing it with young learners. They will remember it better if they are having fun.
· Put the students in teams. One person from each team races to the teacher and is given a card. They return to the group and decide which phoneme is used in the word from the board. They write the phoneme on the back of the card and run back to the teacher. If the symbol is correct the student is given another card. They must keep the cards and try to accumulate as many as possible. The winning team is the one with the most cards at the end.
· Give the students blu tack and ask them to stick the symbols to the board. Then do another drilling session.
· Then, in the teams, the students choose two symbols and race to make a sentence for each that includes three of the words from that symbol. The sentence must make some sense!
· Then you can reward the most imaginative sentences.
C. Make your own wall charts
· Put the symbols you want to learn on the board and drill them.
· Then ask students to match flash cards with each symbol. For example, /i:/ can be matched with a picture of cheese.
· Then ask the children to draw the symbol and the picture on the top of a large piece of coloured card. These cards are then stuck to the wall for the next class.
· In the next class, the children are put into coloured teams. Each team is given ten words on cards which they have to stick to the posters. Play some fun music to do this! Give them a time limit.
· Then, check how many they got correct. (Try to use words they are familiar with, or words you want to revise.) The winners are those with most correct.
· Every few classes you can revise this, repeat it and add to it. So you end up with a comprehensive and colorful wall display all created by them. Much more interesting than a published phonemic chart for young learners.
Chinese whispers.
Again, this is for revising individual sounds.
· The teacher sits the learners in a circle and shows a student a symbol, also whispering it in their ear.
· The sound is passed around the class. If the sound is correct at the end for the symbol the students get a point, if not the teacher gets a point.
D. Using dictionaries
This should be done with students who are familiar with the script and is suitable more for teenagers and adults.
· Choose five words from the dictionary and write them in phonetic script.
· Ask the students in pairs to write down what they think the word is.
· Then get the students to swap papers with a different group and ask them to look up the word to see if they were correct.
· The winners are the group with most correct.
· Then they can make a new list of five words for the other group to repeat the activity with.
· This can be combined with a revision of vocabulary from the course book they are using. The students look up words in the dictionary from the book and transcribe them for the other group to guess.
E. Going shopping
This is a communicative activity which incorporates some sounds you have been doing in class into a shopping list activity where the students have to practice dialogues buying certain items like cheese, meat, /i:/, and crisps, milk /I/.
· Students can be put into two groups of shop owners and customers with a budget to make it more 'authentic'.
· Then they have a certain time to buy all the items they can on the list.
· For the shop owners, give them flash cards of food items or pieces of card with the food and prices on them.
· Afterwards they can decide the cheapest and most expensive shops as a class.
CHAPTER II
A. Conclusion
Through these flash cards, learn be quickly about the names of objects, colors, letters, and so on. Besides being used as material for the introduction of objects, flash cards can also be used for materials tell. The story could have come from us (parents) or children are told about the pictures he saw.
Although we did not set targets on the ability, flash cards proved to be extremely useful. Besides enjoy, within a very short procedure knowledge is growing fast.
REFERENCES
Reibel, Daniel B. 1978. Registration Methods for the Small Museum. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History.
Samuel, Evelyn K. 1988. Documenting our heritage. Library Trends 37: 142-53.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

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Linguistics 5

Semantics and Pragmatics

Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics)


Meaning seems at once the most obvious feature of language and the most obscure aspect to study. It is obvious because it is what we use language for—to communicate with each other, to convey 'what we mean' effectively. But the steps in understanding something said to us in a language in which we are fluent are so rapid, so transparent, that we have little conscious feel for the principles and knowledge which underlie this communicative ability.

Questions of 'semantics' are an important part of the study of linguistic structure. They encompass several different investigations: how each language provides words and idioms for fundamental concepts and ideas (lexical semantics), how the parts of a sentence are integrated into the basis for understanding its meaning (compositional semantics), and how our assessment of what someone means on a particular occasion depends not only on what is actually said but also on aspects of the context of its saying and an assessment of the information and beliefs we share with the speaker.

Applications
Research in these areas reveals principles and systems which have many applications. The study of lexical (word) semantics and the conceptual distinctions implicit in the vocabulary of a language improves dictionaries which enable speakers of a language to extend their knowledge of its stock of words. It also improves materials which help those acquiring a second language through instruction. Studying the rules governing the composition of word meanings into sentence meanings and larger discourses allows us to build computer systems which can interact with their users in more naturalistic language. Investigating how our understanding of what is said is influenced by our individual and cultural assumptions and experience, which are much less visible than what is explicitly said, can help make us more aware and effective communicators. The result of all of these (sometimes very abstract) investigations is a deeper understanding and appreciation of the complexity and expressive elegance of particular languages and the uniquely human system of linguistic communication.

The Importance of Context
We can appreciate how someone can mean more than they `strictly speaking' say by considering the same thing said in two different contexts. Consider two people, Pat and Chris, who are getting to know each other on a first date. If Chris says to Pat at the end of the evening, "I like you a lot.", Pat will likely feel good about the situation. But imagine that Pat and Chris have been dating for some weeks, and Pat asks, "Do you love me?" Now if Chris says, "I like you a lot," the reaction will likely be quite different, as Chris' statement is taken as a negative answer! The difference does not come from the content of what is said but from the operation of a general pragmatic principle: When evaluating something on a scale of values, putting it at a certain point on the scale implies that all the higher values on the scale are inappropriate. It is our background assessment that positive feeling is ranked on a scale with 'love' higher than "like" which makes Chris' reply in the second context convey "No, don't love you." We apply this scalar principle so automatically that it is easy to overlook the fundamental pragmatic difference between what is actually said and what is implied by the saying of it.

A close examination of most words reveals that they have many different senses and the rules which combine them into sentence meanings will frequently yield several possibilities for interpretation. Usually we resolve potential ambiguity unconsciously—unless someone carefully constructs a joke which turns on an ambiguity. Consider for example this joke, taken from Douglas Adams' The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy. Ford and Arthur, are stowaways on a space ship.

Ford: You should prepare yourself for the jump into hyperspace; it's unpleasantly like being drunk.
Arthur: What's so unpleasant about being drunk?
Ford: Just ask a glass of water.

The passage turns on the ambiguity of the word 'drunk', which can be an adjective, meaning 'affected by alcohol', or the passive form of the verb 'drink'. Arthur takes Ford as intending the first sense of 'drunk'—with good reason: he's unlikely to mean that someone would drink him. But Ford reveals that the bizarre interpretation is what he intends. The art of the image is the metaphorical treatment of a person as a liquid; the joke turns on the sleight of hand which makes our semantic interpreter lean in one direction before pulling us back in an unexpected way with a disambiguation.

These examples illustrate our semantic and pragmatic abilities in action. The goal of linguistic research into meaning is to illuminate the processes and knowledge involved.

by William Ladusaw

Suggested Readings
Chierchia, Gennaro, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. 1990. Meaning and grammar.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Clark, Herbert H. 1996. Using language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Jackendoff, Ray. 1983. Semantics and cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Allen, James. 1995. Natural language understanding. Redwood City, CA: Benjamin Cummings, Pub. 2nd edn.

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Linguistics 4

Morphology

  linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonations and stresses, or implied context. In contrast, morphological typology is the classification of languages according to their use of morphemes, while lexicology is the study of those words forming a language's wordstock.

While words, along with clitics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", only found bound to nouns. Speakers of English, a fusional language, recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; and, in similar fashion, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. Languages such as Classical Chinese, however, also use unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and depend on post-phrase affixes and word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ("Mandarin"), however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.

Polysynthetic languages, such as Chukchi, have words composed of many morphemes. The Chukchi word "təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən", for example, meaning "I have a fierce headache", is composed of eight morphemes t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən that may be glossed. The morphology of such languages allows for each consonant and vowel to be understood as morphemes, while the grammar of the language indicates the usage and understanding of each morpheme.

The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is morphophonology.

Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 Fundamental concepts
2.1 Lexemes and word forms
2.1.1 Prosodic word vs. morphological word
2.2 Inflection vs. word formation
2.3 Types of word formation
2.4 Paradigms and morphosyntax
2.5 Allomorphy
2.6 Lexical morphology
3 Models
3.1 Morpheme-based morphology
3.2 Lexeme-based morphology
3.3 Word-based morphology
4 Morphological typology
5 References
6 Further reading
History[edit]
The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguist Pāṇini, who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī by using a constituency grammar. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by Marāḥ al-arwāḥ and Aḥmad b. ‘alī Mas‘ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE.[1]

The term "morphology" was coined by August Schleicher in 1859.[2]

Fundamental concepts[edit]
Lexemes and word forms[edit]
The distinction between these two senses of "word" is arguably the most important one in morphology. The first sense of "word", the one in which dog and dogs are "the same word", is called a lexeme. The second sense is called "word form". Dog and dogs are thus considered different forms of the same lexeme. Dog and dog catcher, on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different kinds of entities. The form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form of a word is called a lemma, or citation form.

Prosodic word vs. morphological word[edit]
Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In Latin, one way to express the concept of 'noun-phrase1 and noun-phrase2' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and", as it were. An extreme level of this theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the Kwak'wala language.[3] In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by affixes instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", where 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even just one word in many languages. Unlike most languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically, but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwak'wala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb):[4]

kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəmai-χ-a q'asa-s-isi t'alwagwayu

Morpheme by morpheme translation:

kwixʔid-i-da = clubbed-pivot-determiner
bəgwanəma-χ-a = man-accusative-determiner
q'asa-s-is = otter-instrumental-3sg-possessive
t'alwagwayu = club.
"the man clubbed the otter with his club."
(Notation notes:

accusative case marks an entity that something is done to.
determiners are words such as "the", "this", "that".
the concept of "pivot" is a theoretical construct that is not relevant to this discussion.)
That is, to the speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the markers -i-da (pivot-'the'), referring to "man", attaches not to the noun bəgwanəma ("man") but to the verb; the markers -χ-a (accusative-'the'), referring to otter, attach to bəgwanəma instead of to q'asa ('otter'), etc. In other words, a speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words:

kwixʔid i-da-bəgwanəma χ-a-q'asa s-isi-t'alwagwayu

clubbed PIVOT-the-mani hit-the-otter with-hisi-club

A central publication on this topic is the recent volume edited by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2007), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit clitic, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the prosodic-phonological lack of freedom of bound morphemes. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory.[citation needed]

Inflection vs. word formation[edit]
Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme; while other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are inflectional rules, while those of the second kind are rules of word formation. The generation of the English plural dogs from dog is an inflectional rule, while compound phrases and words like dog catcher or dishwasher are examples of word formation. Informally, word formation rules form "new" words (more accurately, new lexemes), while inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).

The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear cut. There are many examples where linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify this distinction.

Word formation is a process, as we have said, where one combines two complete words, whereas with inflection you can combine a suffix with some verb to change its form to subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, we use ‘go’ with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, whereas for third person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns we use ‘goes’. So this ‘-es’ is an inflectional marker and is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word’s grammatical category whereas in the process of inflection the word never changes its grammatical category.

Types of word formation[edit]
Main article: Word formation
There is a further distinction between two kinds of morphological word formation: derivation and compounding. Compounding is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form. Dog catcher, therefore, is a compound, as both dog and catcher are complete word forms in their own right but are subsequently treated as parts of one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (i.e. non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, whereby the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. The word independent, for example, is derived from the word dependent by using the prefix in-, while dependent itself is derived from the verb depend.

Paradigms and morphosyntax[edit]
Linguistic typology
Morphological
Analytic
Isolating
Synthetic
Fusional
Agglutinative
Polysynthetic
Oligosynthetic
Morphosyntactic
Alignment
Accusative
Ergative
Split ergative
Philippine
Active–stative
Tripartite
Marked nominative
Inverse marking
Syntactic pivot
Theta role
Word order
VO languages
Subject–verb–object
Verb–subject–object
Verb–object–subject
OV languages
Subject–object–verb
Object–subject–verb
Object–verb–subject
V2 word order
Time–manner–place
Place–manner–time
Lexicon
Color terms
Numerals
v t e
A linguistic paradigm is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations of verbs, and the declensions of nouns. Accordingly, the word forms of a lexeme may be arranged conveniently into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender or case. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables, using the categories of person (first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive).

The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily; they must be categories that are relevant to stating the syntactic rules of the language. For example, person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in English, because English has grammatical agreement rules that require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. In other words, the syntactic rules of English care about the difference between dog and dogs, because the choice between these two forms determines which form of the verb is to be used. In contrast, however, no syntactic rule of English cares about the difference between dog and dog catcher, or dependent and independent. The first two are nouns and the second two are adjectives – and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves.

An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms, which are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, whereas the rules of word formation are not restricted by any corresponding requirements of syntax. Inflection is therefore said to be relevant to syntax, and word formation is not. The part of morphology that covers the relationship between syntax and morphology is called "morphosyntax" and concerns itself with inflection and paradigms but not with word formation or compounding.

Allomorphy[edit]
Above, morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms: dog is to dogs as cat is to cats and as dish is to dishes. In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning: in each pair, the first word means "one of X", while the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form -s affixed to the second word, signaling the key distinction between singular and plural entities.

One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In English, there are word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and sheep/sheep, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all. Even cases regarded as regular, such as -s, are not so simple; the -s in dogs is not pronounced the same way as the -s in cats; and, in plurals such as dishes, a vowel is added before the -s. These cases, where the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", constitute allomorphy.

Phonological rules constrain which sounds can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules, by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in the language in question. For example, to form the plural of dish by simply appending an -s to the end of the word would result in the form *[dɪʃs], which is not permitted by the phonotactics of English. In order to "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and [dɪʃɪz] results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the -s in dogs and cats: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding phoneme.

Lexical morphology[edit]
Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon, which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of lexemes in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding.

Models[edit]
There are three principal approaches to morphology, which each try to capture the distinctions above in different ways:

Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of an Item-and-Arrangement approach.
Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes use of an Item-and-Process approach.
Word-based morphology, which normally makes use of a Word-and-Paradigm approach.
Note that while the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list is very strong, it is not absolute.

Morpheme-based morphology[edit]
In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of morphemes. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word such as independently, the morphemes are said to be in-, depend, -ent, and ly; depend is the root and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes.[5] In words such as dogs, dog is the root and the -s is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest and most naïve form, this way of analyzing word forms, called "item-and-arrangement", treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other ("concatenated") like beads on a string. More recent and sophisticated approaches, such as distributed morphology, seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenative, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for item-and-arrangement theories and similar approaches.

Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms:[6]

Baudoin’s "single morpheme" hypothesis: Roots and affixes have the same status as morphemes.
Bloomfield’s "sign base" morpheme hypothesis: As morphemes, they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and meaning.
Bloomfield’s "lexical morpheme" hypothesis: morphemes, affixes and roots alike are stored in the lexicon.
Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one Hockettian.[7] For Bloomfield, the morpheme was the minimal form with meaning, but did not have meaning itself.[clarification needed] For Hockett, morphemes are "meaning elements", not "form elements". For him, there is a morpheme plural using allomorphs such as -s, -en and -ren. Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, these two views are mixed in unsystematic ways, so a writer may refer to "the morpheme plural" and "the morpheme -s" in the same sentence.

Lexeme-based morphology[edit]
Lexeme-based morphology usually takes what is called an "item-and-process" approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, a word form is said to be the result of applying rules that alter a word-form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem.

Word-based morphology[edit]
Word-based morphology is (usually) a word-and-paradigm approach. This theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms, or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. The examples are usually drawn from fusional languages, where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third-person plural". Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation, since one just says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these, because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. Word-and-Paradigm approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as older replacing elder (where older follows the normal pattern of adjectival superlatives) and cows replacing kine (where cows fits the regular pattern of plural formation).

Morphological typology[edit]
Main article: Morphological typology
In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. According to this typology, some languages are isolating, and have little to no morphology; others are agglutinative, and their words tend to have lots of easily separable morphemes; while others yet are inflectional or fusional, because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together. This leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. A standard example of an isolating language is Chinese, while that of an agglutinative language is Turkish. Latin and Greek are prototypical inflectional or fusional languages.

Considering the variability of the world's languages, it is clear that this classification is not at all clear cut, and many languages (Latin and Greek among them) do not neatly fit any one of these types, and some fit in more than one way. A continuum of complex morphology of language may be adapted when considering languages.

The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology. The Item-and-Arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages; while the item-and-process and word-and-paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages.

As there is very little fusion involved in word formation, classical typology mostly applies to inflectional morphology. Depending on the preferred way of expressing non-inflectional notions, languages may be classified as synthetic (i.e. using word formation) or analytic (i.e. using syntactic phrases).

References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arabic Morphology and Phonology[dead link]
Jump up ^ Für die Lehre von der Wortform wähle ich das Wort "Morphologie"... ("For the science of word-formation, I choose the term "morphology"..."), Mémoires Acad. Impériale 7/1/7, 35.
Jump up ^ Formerly known as Kwakiutl, Kwak'wala belongs to the Northern branch of the Wakashan language family. "Kwakiutl" is still used to refer to the tribe itself, along with other terms.
Jump up ^ Example taken from Foley 1998, using a modified transcription. This phenomenon of Kwak'wala was reported by Jacobsen as cited in van Valin and La Polla 1997.
Jump up ^ The existence of words like appendix and pending in English does not mean that the English word depend is analyzed into a derivational prefix de- and a root pend. While all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules, this was only the case in Latin, not in English. English borrowed such words from French and Latin, but not the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine de- and the verb pendere 'to hang' into the derivative dependere.
Jump up ^ See Beard 1995 for an overview and references.
Jump up ^ See Bloomfield 1933 and Hockett 1947.
Further reading[edit]
(Abbreviations: CUP = Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
Anderson, Stephen R. (1992). A-Morphous Morphology. Cambridge: CUP.
Aronoff, Mark. (1993). "Morphology by Itself". Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Aronoff, Mark. (2009). "Morphology: an interview with Mark Aronoff". ReVEL, v. 7, n. 12, ISSN 1678-8931.
Beard, Robert. (1995). Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2471-5.
Bauer, Laurie. (2003). Introducing linguistic morphology (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-343-4.
Bauer, Laurie. (2004). A glossary of morphology. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UP.
Bubenik, Vit. (1999). An introduction to the study of morphology. LINCON coursebooks in linguistics, 07. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-570-2.
Bybee, J. L. (1985). Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Dixon, R. M. W. and Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (Eds). (2007). Word: A cross-linguistic typology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Foley, William A. (1998). "Symmetrical Voice Systems and Precategoriality in Philippine Languages". Workshop: Voice and Grammatical Functions in Austronesian. University of Sydney.
Haspelmath, Martin. (2002). Understanding morphology. London: Arnold (co-published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-340-76025-7 (hb); ISBN 0-340-76026-5 (pbk).
Fabrega, Antonio & Sergio Scalise (2012). Morphology: from Data to Theory. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Pres.
Katamba, Francis. (1993). Morphology. Modern linguistics series. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-10101-5 (hb). ISBN 0-312-10356-5 (pbk).
Korsakov, A. K. (Andreĭ Konstantinovich). (1969) The use of tenses in English. Korsakov, A. K. Structure of Modern English pt. 1. oai:gial.edu:26766 at http://www.language-archives.org/item/oai:gial.edu:26766
Kishorjit, N., Vidya Raj RK., Nirmal Y., and Sivaji B. (2012) "Manipuri Morpheme Identification", Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on South and Southeast Asian Natural Language Processing (SANLP),pages 95–108, COLING 2012, Mumbai, December 2012
Matthews, Peter. (1991). Morphology (2nd ed.). CUP. ISBN 0-521-41043-6 (hb). ISBN 0-521-42256-6 (pbk).
Mel'čuk, Igor A. (1993–2000). Cours de morphologie générale, vol. 1-5. Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal.
Mel'čuk, Igor A. (2006). Aspects of the theory of morphology. Berlin: Mouton.
Scalise, Sergio. (1983). Generative Morphology, Dordrecht, Foris.
Singh, Rajendra and Stanley Starosta (eds). (2003). Explorations in Seamless Morphology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-9594-3 (hb).
Spencer, Andrew. (1991). Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar. No. 2 in Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16143-0 (hb); ISBN 0-631-16144-9 (pb)
Spencer, Andrew and Zwicky, Arnold M. (Eds.) (1998). The handbook of morphology. Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18544-5.
Stump, Gregory T. (2001). Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure. No. 93 in Cambridge studies in linguistics. CUP. ISBN 0-521-78047-0 (hb).
van Valin, Robert D., and LaPolla, Randy. (1997). Syntax : Structure, Meaning And Function. CUP

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Linguistics 3

Pengantar Psikolinguistik


A. Pendahuluan
1. Latar Belakang Masalah
Bahasa merupakan satu wujud yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kehidupan manusia, sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa bahasa itu adalah milik manusia yang telah menyatu dengan pemiliknya. Sebagai salah satu milik manusia, bahasa selalu muncul dalam segala aspek dan kegiatan manusia. Tidak ada satu kegiatan manusia pun yang tidak disertai dengan kehadiran bahasa. Oleh karena itu, bahasa dapat bermacam-macam sejalan dengan bidang kegiatan tempat bahasa itu digunakan. Yang tertera diatas bisa disebut dengan psikolinguistik karena psikolinguistik adalah suatu studi yang mengenai penggunaan bahasa dan perolehan bahasa manusia. Kajian ini menjadikan bahasa dan manusia sebagai obyek kajiannya.
2. Rumusan Masalah
1. Bagaimanakah psikolinguistik lahir? Apa itu psikolinguistik?
2. Ada berapakah subdisiplin ilmu psikolinguistik?
3. Apa sajakah ruang lingkup psikolinguistik? Apa pula objek kajian ilmu ini?

Pembahasan

1. Sejarah Lahir dan Perkembangan Psikolinguistik

Psikolinguistik yakni ilmu yang merupakan gabungan antara dua ilmu psikologi dan linguistic. Benih ilmu ini sebenarnya sudah tampak pada abad permulaan kedua puluh tatkala psikolog Jerman, Wilhelm Wundt menyatakan bahwa bahasa dapat dijelaskan dengan prinsip-prinsip psikologis.[1]
Pada awal perkembangannya, psikolinguistik bermula dari adanya pakar linguistic yang berminat pada psikologi dan adanya pakar psikologi yang berkecimpung dalam linguistic. Dilanjutkan dengan adanya kerja sama antar kedua pakar tersebut. Kemudian muncullah pakar psikolinguistik sebagai disiplin ilmu.[2]
Kebanyakan orang menyebutkan bahwa psikolinguistik lahir sesudah tahun 1954, meskipun sebenarnya psikolinguistik telah dipelajari dan didiskusikan di Jerman sejak abad ke-19, hanya saja dengan istilah yang berbeda. Wundt adalah bapak psikologi eksperimen yang membangun pertamakali laboratorium psikologi di Leipzig, Jerman pada abad ke-19. Wundt juga yang memperkenalkan Psikologi Bahasa (Psychology Der Sprache) yang materinya tidak jauh berbeda dengan apa yang dibahas dalam psikolinguistik. Psikolinguistik merupakan istilah lain dari Psikologi Bahasa yang muncul setelah Perang Dunia kedua.
Dalam bukunya, dengan keras menggabungkan dua aliran yang sangat kuat pada abad 19, yaitu aliran idealisme atau rasionalisme dengan aliran empirisme.[3]
1. Aliran Idealisme
Menurut aliran idealism ialah melalui berfikir (thinking) dan penalaran (reasoning). Bagaimana seorang anak dapat memperoleh pengetahuan serta bagaimana seorang anak yang mula-mula tidak mempunyai pegetahuan apa-apa, makin hari makin bertambah pengetahuannya.
Menurut Humbold, anak-anak dilahirkan dengan bekal pengetahuan tertentu dengan innate sifatnya (dibawa sejak lahir/bawaan). Dengan bekal dan bantuan pnalaran, anak itu membangun pengetahuannya melalui appersepsi.
Appersepsi ialah tahap ahir dari persepsi yang sang sangat mendalam, dimana objek-objek yang dipersepsikan itu sangat jelas dan terpegang (dipahami dan menonjol dalam kesadaran). Apa yang ada dalam pikiran kita selalu berhubungan dengan apa yang ada sebelumnya, atau dapat dikatakan selalu berkaitan dengan keseluruhan isi pikiran kita. [4]
2. Aliran Empirisme
Kaum empirisme beranggapan bahwa pengetahuan diperoleh dari penginderaan. Jadi, dari pengalaman bukan dari penalaran sepert yang dikatakan oleh kaum sebelumnya. Disamping itu, dikatakan juga bahwa anak-anak lahir tanpa pengetahuan apa-apa, merekan adalah Tabula Rasa, sesuatu yang kosong. Hanya melalui pengalaman mereka baru mendapatkan pengetahuan. Mekanisme pembentukan pengetahuan ini menurut kaum empiris adalah melalui asosiasi dan analogi.
Dalam sejarah kita mengenal dua tradisi yang berbeda, yaitu mentalisme dan obyektipisme. Mentalisme adalah semua teori yang menganggap jiwa (mine) sebagai realitas. Konsep-konsep dari mine, pikiran, image, dan judgement merupakan bagian-bagian yang penting dari teorinya. Obyektivisme adalah semua teori yang gagasan-gagasannya berhubungan langsung dengan hal-hal yang teramati. [5]
2. Psikologi
Secara etimologi kata psikologi berasal dari bahasa Yunani Kunopsyche dan logos. Kata psyche berarti “jiwa, roh atau sukma”, sedangkanlogos berarti “ilmu”. Jadi, psikologi, secara harfiah berarti “ilmu jiwa”, atau ilmu yang objek kajiannya adalah jiwa. [6]
Dalam perkembangannya, psikologi telah terbagi menjadi beberapa aliran sesuai dengan paham filsafat yang dianut. Oleh karena itu, dikenal adanya psikologi mentalistik, behavioristik, dan kognitifistik.
Psikologi mentalistik melahirkan aliran yang disebut psikologi kesadaran. Tujuan utamanya adalah mencoba mengkaji proses-proses akal manusia dengan cara mengintrospeksi atau mengkaji diri. oleh karena itu, psikologi kesadaran lazim juga disebut psikologi introspeksionisme. Psikologi ini merupakan suatu proses akal dengan cara melihat ke dalam diri sendiri setelah suatu rangsangan terjadi.
Psikologi behavioristik melahirkan aliran psikologi perilaku. Tujuannya adalah mencoba mengkaji perilaku manusia yang berupa reaksi apabila suatu rangsangan terjadi, dan selanjutnya bagaimana mengawasi dan mengontrol perilaku itu.
Psikologi kognitifistik dan lazim disebut psikologi kognitif mencoba mengkaji proses-proses kognitif manusia secara ilmiah. Proses kognitif adalah proses akal (pikiran dan berpikir) manusia yang bertanggung jawab mengatur pengalaman dan perilaku manusia. hal utama yang dikaji ialah bagaimana cara manusia memperoleh, menafsirkan, mengatur, menyimpan, mengeluarkan, dan menggunakan pengetahuannya, termasuk perkembangan dan pengetahuan bahasa. [7]
3. Linguistik
Linguistik adalah ilmu tentang bahasa atau ilmu yang mengambil bahasa sebagai objek kajiannya.[8] Oleh karena itu, kita bisa lihat adanya berbagai cabang linguistic yang dibuat berdasarkan berbagai kriteria atau pandangan. Secara umum pembidangan linguistic dalah sebagai berikut.[9]
Pertama, menurut objek kajiannya, linguistic dibagi atas dua cabang besar, yaitu linguistik mikro dan linguistik makro. Objek kajian linguistic mikro adalah struktur internal bahasa itu sendiri, mencakup fonologi, morfologi, sintaksis, dan leksikon. Sedangkan objek kajian linguistic makro adalah bahasa dalam hubungannya dengan faktorfaktor di luar bahasa seperti faktor sosiologis, psikologis, antropologi, dan neurologi.
Kedua, menurut tujuan kajiannya, linguistic dapat dibedakan menjadi dua bidang besar yaitu linguistik teoretis dan linguistik terapan. Kajian teoretis hanya ditujukan untuk mencari atau menemukan teori-teori linguistik belaka. Sedangkan kajian terapan ditunjukan untuk menerapkan kaidah-kaidah linguistik dalam kegiatan praktis, seperti dalam pengajaran bahasa, penerjemahan, penyusunan kamus, dan sebagainya.
Ketiga, linguistik sejarah dan sejarah linguistik. Linguistik sejarah mengkaji perkembangan dan perubahan suatu bahasa atau sejumlah bahasa baik dengan perbandingan maupun tidak. Sedangkan sejarah linguistik mengkaji perkembangan ilmu linguistik baik mengenai tokoh-tokohnya, aliran-aliran teorinya, maupun hasil-hasil kerjanya.
4. Psikolinguistik
Aitchison (1998: 1) mendefinisikannya sebagai “studi tentang bahasa dan minda”. Harley (2001: 1) menyebutnya sebagai suatu “studi tentang proses-proses mental dalam pemakaian bahasa”. Sementara itu Clark dan Clark (1977: 4) menyatakan bahwa psikologi bahasa berkaitan dengan tiga hal utama: komprehensi, produksi, dan pemerolehan bahasa. Dari definisi-definisi ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa psikolingistik adalah ilmu yang mempelajari proses-proses mental yang dilalui oleh manusia dalam mereka berbahasa.[10]
Secara rinci psikolinguistik mempelajari empat topik utama:
a) Komprehensi, yakni, proses-proses mental yang dilalui oleh manusia sehingga mereka dapat menangkap apa yang dikatakan orang dan memahami apa yang dimaksud.
b) Produksi, yakni, proses-proses mental pada diri kita yang membuat kita dapat berujar seperti yang kita ujarkan.
c) Landasan biologis serta neurologis yang membuat manusia bisa berbahasa.
d) Pemerolehan bahasa, yakni, bagaimana anak memperoleh bahasa.
Secara etimologi kata psikolinguistik terbentuk dari kata psikologi danlinguistik, yakni dua bidang ilmu yang berbeda, yang masing-masing berdiri sendiri, dengan prosedur dan metode yang berlainan. Namun, keduanya sama-sama meneliti bahasa sebagai objek formalnya. Hanya objek materianya yang berbeda, linguistic mengkaji struktur bahasa, sedangkan psikologi mengkaji perilaku berbahasa atau proses berbahasa. Dengan demikian cara dan tujuannya pun berbeda.
Meskipun cara dan tujuannya berbeda, tetapi banyak juga bagian-bagian objeknya yang dikaji dengan cara yang sama dan dengan tujuan yang sama, tetapi dengan teori yang berlainan. Hasil kajian kedua disiplin ini pun banyak yang sama, meskipun tidak sedikit yang berlainan. Oleh karena itu, perlu adanya kerja sama diantara kedua disiplin ini untuk mengkaji bahsa dan hakikat bahasa. Dengan kerja sama kedua disiplin itu diharapkan akan diperoleh hasil kajian yang lebih baik dan lebih bermanfaat.[11]
Psikolinguistik mencoba menguraikan proses-proses psikologi yang berlangsung jika seseorang mengucapkan kalimat-kalimat yang didengarnya pada waktu berkomunikasi, dan bagaimana kemampuan berbahasa itu diperoleh oleh manusia (Slobin, 1974; Meller, 1964; Slama Cazahu, 1973). Maka secara teoretis tujuan utama psikolinguistik adalah mencari satu teori bahasa yang secara linguistik bisa diterima dan secara psikologi dapat menerangkan hakikat bahasa dan pemerolehannya. Dengan kata lain, psikolinguistik mencoba menerangkan hakikat struktur bahasa, dan bagaimana struktur ini diperoleh, digunakan pada waktu bertutur, dan pada waktu memahami kalimat-kalimat dalam pertuturan itu. Dalam prakteknya psikolinguistik mencoba menerapkan pengetahuan linguistik dan psikologi pada masalah-masalah seperti pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa, pengajaran membaca permulaan dan membaca lanjut, kedwibahasaan dan kemultibahasaan, penyakit bertutur seperti afasia, gagap dan sebagainya; serta masalah-masalah social lain yang menyangkut bahasa, seperti bahasa dan pendidikan, bahasa dan pembangunan nusa dan bangsa.
Kerja sama antara psikologi dan linguistik setelah beberapa lama berlangsung tampaknya belum cukup untuk dapat menerangkan hakikat bahasa seperti tercermin dalam definisi di atas. Bantuan dari ilmu-ilmu lain sangat diperlukan, seperti neurofisiologi, neurofisiologis, neurolinguistik, dan sebagainya. Maka meskipun digunakan istilah psikolinguistik, bukan berarti hanya kedua bidang ilmu itu saja yang diterapkan, tetapi juga hasil penelitian dari ilmu-ilmu lain pun dimanfaatkan.
Menurut G. kempen (Kempen 1976), bahwa dalam psikolinguistik ada dua komponen yang menjadi objek studinya, yaitu manusia dan bahasa. Psikolinguistik lahir dari perkawinan dua disiplin, yaitu psikologi yang membahas tingkah laku manusia dan linguistic yang membahas bahasa sebagai suatu sistem pola tingkah laku. Perkawinan itu terjadi sejak timbulnya pemikiran-pemikiran tentang bagaimana kemampuan bahasa itu berkembang atau bagaimana seorang anak belajar bahasa. Hal itu dimulai oleh C. E. Osgood pada tahun 1954. [12]
5. Subdisiplin psikolinguistik
a) Psikolinguistik teoritis
Membahas teori-teori bahasa yang berkaitan dengan proses-proses mental manusia dalam berbahasa, misalnya dalam rancangan fonetik, rancangan pilihan kata, rancangan sintaksis, rancangan wacana, dan rancangan intonasi.
b) Psikolinguistik perkembanagan
Berkaitan dengan proses pemerolehan bahasa, baik pemerolehan bahasa pertama, (B1), maupun pemerolehan bahasa kedua (B2). Subdisiplin ini mengkaji proses pemerolehan fonologi, semantic, dan sintaksis.
c) Psikolinguistik social
Berkenaan dengan aspek-aspek social bahasa. Bagi suatu masyarakat-bahasa, bahasa itu bukan hanya merupakan suatu gejala dan identitas social saja, tetapi juga merupakan suatu ikatan batin dan nurani yang sukar ditinggalkan.
d) Psikolinguistik pendidikan
Mengkaji aspek-aspek pendidikan secara umum dalam pendidikan formal disekolah, seperti peranan bahasa dalam pengajaran membaca, pengajaran kemahiran berbahasa, dan pengetahuan mengenai peningkatan kemampuan bahasa dalam proses memperbaiki kemampuan menyampaikan pikiran dan perasaan.
e) Psikolinguistik-neurologi (neuropsikolinguistik)
Mengkaji hubungan antara bahasa, berbahasa, dan otak manusia.
f) Psikolinguistik eksperimen
Meliput dan melakukan eksperimen dalam semua kegiatan bahasa dan berbahasa pada suatu pihak dan perilaku berbahasa dan akibat berbahasapada pihak lain.
g) Psikoinguistik terapan
Berkaitan dengan penerapan dari temuan-temuan enam subdisiplin psikolinguistik diatas kedalam bidang-bidang tertentu yang memerlukannya. Yang termasuk subdisiplin ini ialah psikologi, linguistik, pertuturan dan pemahaman, pembelajaran bahasa, pengajaran membaca neurologi, psikiatri, komunikasi, dan susastra.[13]
6. Ruang lingkup psikolinguistik

Bagian

Sub bagian

Contoh
Psikolinguistik umum

Persepsi

Auditif
Visual

Mendengarkan, menulis, membaca


Kognitif

Ingatan
Berpikir
Intuisi

Verbal memory
Verbal thinking


Produksi

Auditif
Visual

Berbicara
menulis
Psikolinguistik perkembangan

Bahasa Pertama (bahasa ibu)
Bahasa kedua



Struktur kalimat dua kata.
Belajar membaca
Psikolinguistik terapan

Umum


Normal

Studi tentang ejaan




Menyimpang

Aphasia


Perkembangan

Normal

Kurikulum untuk belajar membaca




Menyimpang

Gagap, buta warna, dyslexia.


7. Induk disiplin Psikolinguistik
Karena psikolingustik merupakan gabuan dari psikologidan linguistik, maka beberapa pakar berpendapat psikolinguistik berinduk pada psikologi karena istilah itu merupakan nama baru dari psikologi bahasa (psychology of language) yang telah dikenal waktu sebelumnya. Namun, di amerika serikat pada umumnya psikolinguistik dianggap sebagai cabang dari linguistik, meskipun noam Chomsky, tokoh linguistic generative transformasi cenderung menempatkan psikolinguistik sebagai cabang psikologi.[14]

A. Kesimpulan

Ø Psikolinguistik yakni ilmu yang merupakan gabungan antara dua ilmu psikologi dan linguistic. Benih ilmu ini sebenarnya sudah tampak pada abad permulaan kedua puluh di Jerman,
Ø Psikolinguistik terbagi kedalam tujuh subdisiplin ilmu :
a. Psikolinguistik teoretis
b. Psikolinguistikperkembangan
c. Psikolinguistik social
d. Psikolinguistik pendidikan
e. Psikolinguistik neurologi
f. Psikolinguistik eksperimen
g. Psikolinguistik terapan
Ø Ruang lingkup psikolinguistik ada 3:
1. Psikolinguistik umum
2. Psikolinguistik perkembangan
3. Psikolinguistik terapan
Ø Objek kajian psikolinguistik adalah manusia dan bahasa






DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Abdul Chaer, Psikolinguistik Kajian Teoretik, (Jakarta : PT RIneka Cipta, 2009, cetakan kedua)
Djoko Kentjono, Dasar-dasar Linguistik Umum, (Depok: Fakultas Sastra UI, 1990, cetakan ketiga)
Soenjono Darjowidjojo, Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia, (Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2005, cet. II edisi II)
Prof. Dr. Samsunuwiyati Mar’at, Psi (Bandung, PT Refika Aditama, 2009, cetakan kedua)

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Linguistics 2

LINGUISTICS: Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics

Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior. In the normal transfer of information through language, we use language to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word.

Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one strand of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society.

Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of study, as certain cultures around the world expand their communication base and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance.

The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language use symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction. The notion is simple, but the ways in which language reflects behavior can often be complex and subtle. Furthermore, the relationship between language and society affects a wide range of encounters--from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.

For example, sociolinguists might investigate language attitudes among large populations on a national level, such as those exhibited in the US with respect to the English-only amendment--the legislative proposal to make English the 'official' language of the US. Similarly, we might study the status of French and English in Canada or the status of national and vernacular languages in the developing nations of the world as symbols of fundamental social relations among cultures and nationalities. In considering language as a social institution, sociolinguists often use sociological techniques involving data from questionnaires and summary statistical data, along with information from direct observation.

A slightly different concern with language and society focuses more closely on the effect of particular kinds of social situations on language structure. For example, language contact studies focus on the origin and the linguistic composition of pidgin and creole languages. These special language varieties arise when speakers from mutually unintelligible language groups need a common language for communication. Throughout the world, there are many sociohistorical situations that have resulted in these specialized language situations--in the Caribbean, Africa, South America, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. In examining language contact situations, it is also possible to examine not only the details of a particular language but also the social and linguistic details that show how bilingual speakers use each language and switch between them.

Another approach to language and society focuses on the situations and uses of language as an activity in its own right. The study of language in its social context tells us quite a bit about how we organize our social relationships within a particular community. Addressing a person as 'Mrs.', 'Ms.', or by a first name is not really about simple vocabulary choice but about the relationship and social position of the speaker and addressee. Similarly, the use of sentence alternatives such as Pass the salt, Would you mind passing the salt, or I think this food could use a little salt is not a matter of simple sentence structure; the choice involves cultural values and norms of politeness, deference, and status

In approaching language as a social activity, it is possible to focus on discovering the specific patterns or social rules for conducting conversation and discourse. We may, for example, describe the rules for opening and closing a conversation, how to take conversational turns, or how to tell a story or joke.

It is also possible to examine how people manage their language in relation to their cultural backgrounds and their goals of interaction. Sociolinguists might investigate questions such as how mixed-gender conversations differ from single-gender conversations, how differential power relations manifest themselves in language forms, how caregivers let children know the ways in which language should be used, or how language change occurs and spreads to communities. To answer these questions related to language as social activity, sociolinguists often use ethnographic methods. That is, they attempt to gain an understanding of the values and viewpoints of a community in order to explain the behaviors and attitudes of its members.

Two trends have characterized the development of sociolinguistics over the past several decades. First, the rise of particular specializations within this field has coincided with the emergence of more broadly based social and political issues. Thus, the focus on themes such as language and nationalism, language and ethnicity, and language and gender has corresponded with the rise of related issues in society at large. Second, specialists who examine the role of language and society have become more and more interested in applying the results of their studies to the broadly based social, educational, and political problems that probably gave rise to their emergence as sociolinguistic themes to begin with. Sociolinguistics thus offers a unique opportunity to bring together theory, description, and application in the study of language.

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Linguistics 1

Intoduction To Linguistics " SYNTAX "

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

“SYNTAX”

The structure of sentences, as well as the study of such structure, is called syntax. In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. All languages have ways of reffering to entities – to people,places, things, ideas,events, so on. Reffering expressions are noun phrases.

All languages also have ways of saying something about entities they make reference to. In other words, all languages can make pedications about the things reffered to by the reffering expressions.

SENTENCE TYPES

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has the form of a single clause that stands alone as its own sentences. A clause contains a single verb (or predicate).

Example : Sara cooked the sausages.

Compound Sentences

In a compound sentence (sometimes callaed ‘coordinate’), two or more clauses are joined by a coordinator in a coordinate relationship. A compound sentences has the form of two or more clauses joined by a word such as and, but or or. Two clauses can be joined to make a compound sentences, as in the examples :

– Denise bought a new coat, but she didn’t wear it often.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence combines two (or more) clauses in such a way that one clause functions as a grammatical part of the other one.

Subordinate clauses

Subordinators, when a clause is embedded into another clause

The form of subordinate clauses

CONSTITUENCY AND TREE DIAGRAMS

v Tree Diagrams

This tree diagram can also represent other clauses such as Sally said it.

S

N V N

Sally said it

v Constituency

In analysing the structure of sentences, one pivotal tool is the simple notion that sentences consist not of word but of structural units called constituency. The immediate constituents of a compound sentence are the clauses constituting it and the coordinator joining them, as in this example :

Sarah bought Sam a new car but he did’nt wear it often.

Clause 1 (S1) Clause 2 (S2)

MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF SENTENCES :

NOUN PHRASES AND VERB PHRASES

Noun Phrase is either a single noun or pronoun or a group of words containing a noun or a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of a verb. Each NP contains a noun (or pronoun). Example :

Some of the mangoes were rotten

Noun Adj

Noun Phrase

In linguitics, a verb phrase or VP is a syntactic structure composed of the predicate elements of a sentence and functions in providing information about the subject of the sentence. Each VP contains a verb. Example :

Arif become a doctor

S Verb Comple

Verb Phrase

ü Active / Passive Sentences

Active : Bob mailed the package.

Passive : The package was mailed by Bob.

a and b have the same meaning.

c. S V O

Bob mailed the package.

S V “by-phrase”

The package was mailed by Bob.

In (c): the object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive sentence.

d. S V O

Bob mailed the package

S V “by-phrase”

The peckage was mailed by Bob

In (d): the subject of an active sentence is the object of by in the “by-phrase” in a passive sentence.

Active : The teacher corrects our homework.

Passive : Our homework is corrected by the teacher.

Active : Mr. Lee will teach this class.

Passive : This class will be taught by Mr. Lee.

Form of all passive verbs:

BE + PAST PARTICIPLE.

BE can be in any of its forms: am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, well be, etc.

THE PAST PARTICIPLE follows BE. For regular verbs, the past participle ends in –ed (e.g., mailed, corrected). Some past participle are irregular (e.g., taught).

PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES

Rules For Rewriting Noun Phrases

We can now characterize and exemplify certain types of NP:

Noun (N) : Karen, spoons, justice, swimming

Determiner (DET) + Noun: that spoon, a judge, some gnomes

Determiner + Adjective (ADJ) + Noun: an old farmer, her aged instructor, the flying saucer

Determiner + Adjective + Noun + Prepositional Phrase (PP) : the oldest weather of the year, the first woman on the moon, that loud clap of thunder

One way of representing these various NP patterns is by the use of phrase-structure rules (also called rewrite rules) like the following :

NP → N (NP consists of N)

NP → DET N (NP consists of DET +N)

NP → DET ADJ N (NP consists of DET +ADJ + N)

NP → DET ADJ N PP (NP consists of DET +ADJ +N +PP)

English does indeed permit NPs that consist of ADJ and N, as in extraterrestrial life and great imaginatuion, as ewl as NPs consisting of DET and N and PP, as in those dishes on the table, the whake on the beach, and a cloud in the sky.

Prepositional Phrase

The notation PP stands for prepositional phrase, examples of which include in the car, from Ethiopia, in the attic, to his brither, with the earring and bythe judge. Because every PP consists of a prepositional (PREP0 and a noun phrase (NP), the phrase-structure rule for PP is this :

PP PREP NP

Rules For Rewriting Sentences and Verb Phrases

Every phrase-structure rule can generate a tree diagram, and this phrase-structure rule (rewrite S as NP and VP) would generate the following tree :

S

NP VP

Phrase-Structure Rules and Tree Diagrams

We have now formulated four phrase-structure rules :

S NP VP

NP (DET) (AJD) N (PP)

VP V (NP) (PP)

PP PREF (NP)

These rules represent the fact that every sentence has an NP and a VP; that every NP has an N; that every VP has a V; and that every PP has a PREP.

Refining The Phrase-Structure Rules

Now we examine certain other sentences to see whether they can be generated by the four phrase-structure rules above. Consider the following :

______ VP ____ ______________ VP _______________

The prosecutor changed [that Tom had embezzled]

V S

Other well-formed English sentences indicate that a VP can also consist of V NP PP S, as here :

_NP_ __________________________ VP _______________________________

Julia warned [the cook] [on Monday] [that he must wash the celery]

V NP PP S

this rule can be expanded into all the following, with an example of each given in parenthesis.

V (won)

V NP (won the race)

V NP S (warned the cook [that the must wash the celery])

V NP PP S (told the cook on Monday [that he must wash the celery])

VP

V S (charged [that Tom had embezzled funds])

V PP (flew to Tamworth)

V NP PP (won the bike in a contest)

V PP S (denied in court [that Pat flew to Tamworth])

GRAMATICAL FUNCTIONS :

SUBJECT, DIRECT OBJECT AND OTHERS

Using phrase-structure rules, it is possible to define subject and direct object precisely for English. In defining them, two rules are important :

S → NP VP

VP → V (NP) (PP) (S)

S

SUBJECT

VP

DIRECT OBJECT

NP

V

Subject is defined as the NP that is immediately dominated by S.

Direct object (again, in English and many other languages) is defined as an NP that is immediately by VP.

Grammatical Functions

Grammatical function is a term used to capture the syntactic relationship that exists in a clause between NPs or between an NP and its predicate-to indicate, in other words, the syntactic role that an NP plays in its clause.

Besides subject and direct object, sentences can have other grammatical function, such as indirect object (Tom sold his brother a car), and oblique (in Wnglish, object of a preposition, as in We spoke about the ghost).

SURFACE STRUCTURE AND DEEP STRUCTURES

The level that is represented by the linear string of morphemes and words as uttered or written is called a surface structure. The other level of structure is an abstract level underlying the surface structure. Structure at this level are called deep structures or underlying structure.

TRANSFORMATIONS

ü Subject-auxiliary Inversion

And wh-movement Transformations

In this section we explore two movement transformation, both of which are involved in forming interrogatives; we will then note the implications of these transformations for the underlying structure of every English sentence.

Closed Interogatives

Two principal kinds of interrogatives exist in English : ‘closed’ (used to ask questions for which there is a closed set of answers) and ‘open’ (used to ask questions for which there is an open-ended set of answers). Example :

Jhon was winning the race when he stumbled.

Was Jhon winning the race when he stumbled ?

Open Interrogatives

Open interrogative contain a wh-word (who, why, where, which, what, or how), which represents the information that is sought. Example :

(She was looking for Sigmund Freud today.)

Sha was looking for who today ?

ü Relative Clause Transformation

A relative clause is formed when one clause is embedded into an NP of another clause to produce structures like the following (relative clauses are underlined) :

The Academic Board dismissed [the lecturer who failed me].

TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Constraints on Transformations

One question that continues to challenge grammarians is whether and to what extent limitations exist on the kinds of transformational rules that operate in human language. We can illustrate the kinds of constraints that may exist by analyzing constraints on movement transformations.

Coordinated NP Constraint

In each of the two sets sentences below, the first example is a declarative, the second the corresponding open interrogative, the third a declarative in which the wh-word represents one of two coordinated noun phrases, and the fourth the ill-formed structure that would result if thewh-word were moved to the front of its clause.

a) John invited someone.

b) Who did jhon invite____?

c) John invited Grendel and someone

d) *Who did John invite Grendel and____?

Relative Clause Constraint

Extraction of wh-word from relative clauses is also blocked in English, as the sentences below indicate. As above, the first sentences in eavh set is a declarative containing an indefinite pronoun (hee something) corresponding to the wh-word in the interrogative. As you can see, when the wh-word is extracted from a relative clause (onclosed in brackets), an ungrammatical sentence is produced.

That was the book [that taught you abaut something].

*What was that the book [that taught you about_____]?

https://vjwiko.wordpress.com/2011/10/14/makalah-syntax/

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